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Hinduism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word,
see Hindu
(disambiguation).
Aum,
the most sacred syllable and quintessential symbol of Hinduism, represents the
first manifestation of the unmanifest Brahman.
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Hinduism (सनातन धर्म; commonly called
Sanātana Dharma, roughly Perennial Faith by Hindus) is generally
considered to be the oldest major world
religion still practised today and first among Dharma faiths. Hinduism is
characterized by a diverse array of belief systems, practices and scriptures. It
has its origin in ancient Vedic culture at least as far back
as 2000 BC.
It is the third largest religion with approximately 890 million followers worldwide, 96%
of whom live in the Indian
subcontinent.
Perhaps the Hindu spirit, inspired by no one man or woman in particular, is
best captured in a line from the ancient Rig Veda, the "oldest religious
scripture in the world." (1):
- Sanskrit:एकम् सत्
विप्रा:बहुधा वदन्ति
- Transliteration:Ekam Sat Viprāha Bahudhā Vadanti
- English:"Truth is One, though the Sages know it as Many."
- — The Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn CLXIV, Verse 46)
Essentially, any kind of spiritual practice followed with faith, love and
persistence will lead to the same ultimate state of self-realization. Thus,
Hindu thought distinguishes itself by strongly encouraging tolerance for
different beliefs since temporal systems cannot claim sole understanding of the
one transcendental Truth.
To the Hindu, this idea has been an active force in defining the 'Eternal
Dharma.' It has been for Hinduism what the infinite Divine Self of Advaita is to
existence, remaining forever unchanged and self-luminous, central and pervasive,
in spite of all the chaos and flux around it. In general, Hindu views are broad
and range from monism, dualism, pantheism, panentheism, alternatively
called monistic theism by some
scholars, and strict monotheism, but are not
polytheistic as outsiders perceive the religion to be. Hinduism has often been
confused to be polytheistic as many of Hinduism's adherents are monists, and view multiple
manifestations of the one God or source of being. Hindu monists see one unity,
with the personal Gods, different aspects of only One Supreme Being, like a
single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and are valid to
worship. Some of the Hindu aspects of God include Devi, Vishnu, Ganesh, and Siva. One of the most prominent
Hindu monists is the great saint, Ramakrishna whose preferred
form of God is Devi
and reiterated traditional Hindu beliefs, that aver devotees can invoke God, in
whatever form a devotee prefers, (or as monists prefer to call, Ishta
Devata, i.e., the prefered form of God,) and ask for God's grace in order
to attain Moksha,
end of the cycle of rebirth.
Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. For
common themes in Hinduism, the below "Links to Themes in Hinduism" have web
pages that illustrate them.
Hinduism:a brief overview
10th-century mandir (temple) in Khajuraho, Madhya
Pradesh
Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the Vedas, hence Veda Dharma, and their mystic issue,
the Upanishads, as well as the
teachings of many great Hindu gurus through the ages. Many
streams of thought flow from the six Vedic/Hindu schools, Bhakti
sects and Tantra
Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the first of the Dharma
religions. See Schools of
Hinduism.
The great debate between followers among the major Hindu philosophical
school, Vedanta, from followers of Advaita philosophy on one hand
and the strict theistic schools such as those of Ramanuja and Madhva on the other, focused on
the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman was
essentially attributeless or with attributes, i.e., a personal Supreme
Being.
The Eternal Way
"The Eternal Way" (in Sanskrit सनातन धर्म,
Sanātana Dharma), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", is the
one name that has represented Hinduism for many thousands of years. According to
Hindus, it speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally
true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. But this
consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a
supramental soul-state that exists within and beyond our existence, the
unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the native search for the divine
within the Self, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was
lost. Truth sought with faith shall yield itself in blissful luminescence no
matter the race or creed professed. Indeed, all existence, from vegetation and
beasts to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma. This inherent
faith, therefore, is also known as Arya/Noble Dharma, Veda/Knowledge Dharma,
Yoga/Union Dharma, Hindu Dharma or, simply, the Dharma.
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in Dharma, reincarnation, karma, and moksha (liberation)
of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative yogas. Still more
fundamental principles include ahimsa (non-violence), the
primacy of the Guru,
the Divine Word of Aum
and the power of mantras, love of Truth in many
manifestations as Gods and Goddessess, and an understanding that the essential
spark of the Divine (Atman/Brahman) is in every human and
living being, thus allowing for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary
Truth.
Bindis are worn by Hindu women on
their forehead to symbolize the opening of their spiritual third eye.
An example of the pervasiveness of this paramount truth-seeking spirituality
in daily life is the bindi (seen left), which is a common marker for
Hindu women. It symbolizes the need to cultivate supramental consciousness,
which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." Hindus across the board
stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that
is often associated with the ascetic god Shiva. Men, too, will bear on
their foreheads the equivalent tilak mark, usually on religious
occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main
deity:a 'U' shape stands for Vishnu, a group of three lines
for Shiva. It is
not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying
Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).
Yoga Dharma
Hinduism is practiced through a variety of Yogas (spiritual practices),
primarily bhakti (loving devotion), Karma
Yoga (selfless service), Raja Yoga (meditational Yoga)
and Jnana
Yoga (Yoga of discrimination). These are described in the two principal
texts of Hindu Yoga:
The Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga
Sutras. The Upanishads are also very
important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism.
The four goals of life
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus
is that of purushartha, the "four goals of life". They are
kama, artha, dharma and moksha. It is
said that all humans seek kama (pleasure, physical or emotional) and
artha (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to
govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of
dharma, or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly
infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is moksha, or liberation,
(a.k.a. Mukti, Samadhi, Nirvana, etc.) from Samsara, the
cycle of life, death, and existential duality.
The four stages of life
The human life is also seen as four Ashramas ("phases" or "stages").
They are Brahmacharya, Grihasthya, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The first
quarter of one's life, brahmacharya (literally "grazing in Brahma") is
spent in celibate, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a Guru, building up body
and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage,
alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and
artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual
detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's sons
and daughters, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy
pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes off into seclusion, often
envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully
shed the body for the next life.
This young Indian brahmachari bears on his
forehead the distinctive triple-line tilak
(made out of ash, referred to as vibhuti) and on his chest a rudraksha
(tears of Rudra)
and mala (rosary),
both symbols of Lord Shiva.
Views of God
Within Sanatana Dharma, or
Hinduism (as it is commonly called), a variety of lesser gods are seen as
aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, Brahman (not Brahma). Brahman is
the ultimate, both transcendent and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the
sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Brahman is not a God in
the monotheistic since, as it is not imbued with any limiting characteristics,
not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in
Sanskrit, the
word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender.
Vedanta is a
branch of Hindu philosophy which
gives this matter a greater focus. Yoga is the primary focus in many
ways of a Hindu's religious activities, being somewhere between meditation,
prayer and
healthful exercise.
Some of Hinduism's adherents are monists, seeing in multiple
manifestations of the one God or source of being, which is often confused by
non-Hindus as being polytheism. It is seen as one
unity, with the personal Gods differents aspects of only one Supreme Being, like
a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and seen by some as
valid to worship. Some of the Hindu aspects of God include Devi, Vishnu, Ganesh, and Siva. Hindus believe that God, in
whatever form they prefer, (or as monists prefer to call, "Ishta
Devata,", i.e., the prefered form of God,) can grant worshippers grace to
bring them closer to Moksha, end of the cycle of
rebirth.
The Four Major Sects of Hinduism
Contemporary Hinduism is traditionally divided into four major divisions,
Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, and
Smartism.
Hinduism is a very rich and complex religion. Each of its four sects shares
rituals, beliefs,
traditions and gods
with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve
life's ultimate goal (moksa, liberation) and on their
views of the Gods. Each sect fundamentally believes in different methods of
self-realization and in different aspects of the One Supreme God. However, each
sect respects and accepts all others, and conflict of any kind is rare.
Some sects of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic ideal of Vishnu (often as Krishna), Siva, or Devi; this view does not exclude
other gods, as they are understood to be aspects of the chosen ideal (e.g., to
many devotees of Krishna, Shiva is seen as having sprung from Krishna's creative
force). Often, the monad Brahman is seen as the one source, with all other gods
emanating therefrom. Thus, with all Hindus, there is a strong belief in all
paths being true religions that lead to one God or source, whatever one chooses
to call the ultimate truth.
Origins, nomenclature and society
Historical origins and aspects of society
Relatively little is known about the origins of Hinduism, as it predates recorded history. It
has been said to derive from beliefs of the Aryans, ('noble' followers of the
Vedas), Dravidians,
and Harappans
living in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism subsequently birthed Buddhism and Jainism, which in
turn affected the development of their mother religion. Varying ideas of the
origin of the Veda
and understandings of whether or not the Aryans were native or foreign to Indian
soil can change estimates of Hinduism's age from 4000 to 6000 years. See Early
Hinduism and Aryan Invasion
Theory.
Historically, the word Hindu predates the reference to Hinduism as a
religion; the term is of Persian origin and first referred to people who lived
on the other side (from a Persian point of view) of the Sindhu or Indus river. It was used as
a signifier not only of ethnicity but of Vedic religion as far back as the 15th
and 16th centuries by such figures as Guru Nanak (the founder of Sikhism). During
the British Raj, the term's use
was made standard, and eventually, the religion of the Vedic Hindoos was given
the appelation 'Hinduism.' In actuality, it was merely a new signifier for a
culture that had been thriving for millennia before. See the Hindu (ethnicity) page
for more discussion.
Legal Definition of Hinduism
In a 1966 ruling,
the Supreme Court of
India defined the Hindu faith as follows for legal purposes:
- Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence as the
highest authority in religious and philosophic matters and acceptance with
reverence of Vedas by Hindu thinkers and philosophers as the sole foundation
of Hindu philosophy.
- Spirit of tolerance and willingness to understand and appreciate the
opponent's point of view based on the realization that truth is many-sided.
- Acceptance of great world rhythm — vast periods of creation, maintenance
and dissolution follow each other in endless succession — by all six systems
of Hindu philosophy.
- Acceptance by all systems of Hindu philosophy of the belief in rebirth and
pre-existence.
- Recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are many.
- Realization of the truth that numbers of Gods to be worshiped may be
large, yet there are Hindus who do not believe in the worshiping of idols.
- Unlike other religions, or religious creeds, Hindu religion's not being
tied down to any definite set of philosophic concepts, as such.
Current geographic distribution
The nations of India, Mauritius, and Nepal as well as the Indonesian
island of Bali are
predominantly Hindu; significant Hindu minorities exist in:
- Bangladesh (11 million),
- Myanmar
(7.1 million),
- Pakistan (3.3 million),
- Sri
Lanka (2.5 million),
- the United States (2.0
million)
- South Africa (1.2
million),
- the United Kingdom (1.2
million),
- Malaysia (1.1 million),
- Canada (0.7
million),
- Fiji (0.5
million),
- Trinidad and
Tobago (0.5 million),
- Guyana (0.4
million),
- the Netherlands (0.4 million),
- Singapore (0.3 million)
- Suriname (0.2 million).
The Indonesian islands of Java, Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Borneo also have significant
native Hindu populations. In its Yoga stream, Hinduism is even more
widespread all over the world with 30 million practitioners in the United
States alone.
Dharma in orthodox Hindu society:caste
According to one view, the Caste system shows how strongly
many have felt about each person following his or her dharma, or destined path. A
perversion, according to many Hindus, of dharma's true meaning, caste
still plays a significant role in Hindu society; however, post Independence,
caste is rapidly losing favour in India and caste-based discrimination has been
illegitimised. [1]
(http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/2001/10/19/stories/05192524.htm).
The British Raj and the subsequent governments have used the caste based
politics effectively to divide and conquer for their own personal political
gains. The Vedas do not condone discrimination of any sort. The four varanas
(castes) were based upon the duties to society and worked together towards the
welfare of the society. They had equal standing in the society.
However over a period of time this division of labor was misunderstood and
exploited. This became more ingrained over centuries until social mobility all
but became a thing of the past. In spite of centuries of numerous reform
movements, notably within Vedanta, bhakti yoga and Hindu
streams of Tantra, and reformers, with
recent stalwarts like Swami Vivekananda and
Mahatma Gandhi, caste is
so deeply ensconced in the Indian consciousness that even Christian converts
have been known to separate church meetings for different castes. A number of Muslim communities
have retained caste practices as well. What was first an injunction to living
one's dharma in
surrender to God became an oppressive mandate to surrender to Man. See caste for more.
Hindu philosophy:the six Vedic schools of thought
- Main article:Hindu philosophy
The six Astika or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas)
schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva
Mimamsa (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and Uttara Mimamsa (also called 'Vedanta'). The
non-Vedic schools are called Nastika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata.
The schools that continue to affect Hinduism today are Purva Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta. See Hindu philosophy for a
discussion of the historical significance of Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika.
Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish
the authority of the Vedas. Consequently this school's most valuable
contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic
interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by
reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. This empirical and
eminently sensible manner of religious application is key to the Sanatana/Hindu
Dharma and was especially championed by rationalists like Adi Sankara and Swami Vivekananda. For
greater depth, please see Purva Mimamsa.
Yoga
Sadhus (Hindu ascetic) are often
seen meditating in padmasana (lotus pose). Used
with permission from www.kamat.com
The Yoga system is
generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. The
yoga referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or
meditational union). It is based on the sage Patanjali's extremely
influential text entitled the Yoga Sutra, which is
essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy
that came before. Upanishads and Bhagavad
Gita are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.
The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school
not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into
its metaphysical worldview but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon
which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of purusha (the
infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal
creative forces). It also utilizes the Brahman/Atman terminology and
concepts that are found in depth in the Upanishads, adopting Vedantic
monist concepts.
Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha or samadhi. It, like the Upanishads,
seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman
through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of
one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.' See Yoga for an in-depth look at its
history.
Uttara Mimamsa:The Three Schools of Vedanta
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone
movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of
philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform.
Primarily associated with the Upanishads and their
commentary by Badarayana,
the Vedanta Sutras, Vedanta
thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi
Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by
Vedantic
thought, which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self
rather than on rituals and societal distinctions like caste. The great debate between
followers among the major Hindu philosophical school, Vedanta, from followers of
Advaita
philosophy on one hand and the strict theistic schools such as those of Ramanuja and Madhva on the other,
focused on the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman was
essentially attributeless or with attributes, i.e., a personal Supreme Being.
See Vedanta for
greater depth.
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a
monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator
was Sankara (788?-820?).
Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and
his own guru Govinda
Bhagavadpada. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the
relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in
which Atman (the
individual soul) and Brahman (the ultimate reality)
are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system
of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and
understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced caste and meaningless ritual as foolish,
and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on
God's love and apprehend truth.
To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Truth is best expressed as Nirguna Brahman, or God
without form, or God without personal attributes; indeed, some might go so far
as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond. However, even that definition
can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends
all definitions. All personal forms of God such as Vishnu or Shiva are different aspects of God
in personal form or God with attributes, Saguna Brahman. God's
energy is personified as Devi, the Divine Mother. For Vaishnvaites who follow
Ramanuja's philosophy, Devi is Lakshmi, who is the Mother of all and who pleads
with Vishnu for mankind who is entrenched in sin. For Shaivites, Devi is
Parvati. For Shaktas, who worship Devi, Devi is the personal form of God to
attain the impersonal Absolute, God, i.e., Shiva. For them, Shiva is personified
as God without attributes. See Advaita for more.
Ramanuja
(1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of
the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate
reality had three aspects:Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu
is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for
their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's
system is known as qualified non-dualism.
Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1199 - 1278) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of
reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation
between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is
therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.
Alternative cultures of worship
The Bhakti schools
The Bhakti (Devotional) school
takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and
overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever
relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks
to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the
proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the
singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks
to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as
self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it
is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through
the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to
fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even
transcended, through the love of God. The Bhakti movements rejuvenated
Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to
the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have
affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient
times.
The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has
been through puja, or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a
murti
(statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in
the form of mantras. Devotional songs called
bhajans (written
primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kirtan (praise), and arti (a filtered down
form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of
puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in
connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the
bhakta, through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to
eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of
undifferentiated Love in Truth. See bhakti movement for more
depth.
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art
that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one
eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See bhakti
yoga for more.
Tantrism
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe
(pseudonym Arthur Avalon):"The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute
the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source
of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact,
and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda,
promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says:'For the benefit of men
of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food
they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12).
To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual,
yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these
practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John
Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")
The word "tantra" means "treatise" or
"continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and
scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric".
Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu
cosmology and Yoga.
See Tantra for
more.
Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism
Ahimsa and the cow
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to
understanding the society that has arisen around some of its principles. While
Jainism as it
was practiced was certainly a major influence on Indian society, what with its
exhortation of strict veganism and non-violence as
ahimsa, the term first appeared in the Upanishads. Thus, an ingrained
and externally motivated influence led to the development of a large section of
Hindus who grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of
life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of today's Hindu population,
especially in orthodox communities in South India, in certain
northerly states like Gujurat, and in many Brahmin enclaves around the
subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus, while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is
recommended as a sattwic (purifying)
lifestyle.
Those Hindus
who do eat meat predominantly abstain from beef, some even going so far as to
avoid leather products. This is most likely because the largely pastoral Vedic
people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so
heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel
for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to
identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not
worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions against eating beef arose long after
the Vedas had been
written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that Krishna is both Govinda (herder of
cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and Shiva's attendant is Nandi, the bull. With
the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating
Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow,
it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling
beef and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in
specific regions, but in all of India.
Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, two are quintessentially a part
of its culture and representative of its general ethos:
Aum (ॐ) is the standard sign of
Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu mantras and prayers. It contains
an enormous and diverse amount of symbolism; Hindus consider its sound and
vibration to be the divine representation of existence, encompassing all of
manifold nature into the One eternal truth. ; see Aum for more detail.
The swastika (卐) is an Arya, or noble symbol. It
stands for stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively,
of Surya, the sun.
Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but
primarily describes the four directions and their harmonious whole. It has been
used in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture and is still
widespread in the Indian subcontinent.
Many Eastern cultures still hold it to be sacred, especially in India, in spite of the recent
association with Nazism which perverted the
original meaning of this universal good-luck symbol. See Swastika.
Forms of worship:murtis and mantras
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither polytheistic nor strictly monotheistic. The various
gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms
of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine
Ground (Brahman), akin but not limited
to monism, or as
one monotheistic principle like Vishnu or Shiva.
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without
attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus
understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people.
Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship
with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.
While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of Vishnu (known as
Vaishnavites) to be at
80% and those of Shiva (called Shaivaites)
and Shakti at the
remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus
worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the
most popular are Vishnu (as Krishna or Rama), Shiva, Devi (the Mother as many female
deities, such as Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Durga), Ganesha, Skanda and Hanuman.
Worship of said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons
(murti) which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the
devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable
and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater
principle, representing and are never presumed to be the concept or
entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of iconolatry, in which the symbols
are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to idolatry, a charge often levied
(erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see murti.
Mantra
Reciting mantras is a fundamental practice
that both originated and now continues in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it
is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their
meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the sadhaka
(practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the
deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga akin to the
understanding of the murti. They often give courage in
exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed,
Mahatma Gandhi's dying
words were a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama:"Hai Ram!"
(pronounced Hey Ram).
The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed Gayatri Mantra:
- Sanskrit:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व:| तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो
यो न:प्रचोदयात्
- Transliteration:Aum bhūrbhuvasvaH | tat savitūrvareṇyam
| bhargo devasya dhīmahi | dhiyo yo naH pracodayāt
-
- (/H/ stands for the voiceless aspirate called 'visarga'.)
- English:"OM, O Lord! You are the all pervading Source of Light,
Sustainer, Protector and Bestower of Happiness. Kindle, Enlighten and inspire
our Intelligence to possess Eternal Qualities."
A more detailed explanation of this mantra can be found here:[2]
(http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml).
It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and invokes the
universal Brahman as the principle of
knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, only in its feminine
aspect. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for
at least 5,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river
(especially the Ganga/Ganges). Known as a universal
mantra, it is revered as being the most condensed form of Divine Knowledge
(Veda). Its presiding principle, Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as Veda Mata
(Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with the Goddess of Learning
and Illumination, Saraswati.
The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve moksha, or liberation, through
constant dedication to Satya (Truth) and eventual realization of the
Atman
(Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or pure love, this
universal goal is achievable by all. But it should be noted that Hinduism is a
very practical faith, and is embodied in every aspect of life. It believes
equally in the temporal as in the infinite, only it encourages perspective. The
great rishis (Hindu
sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara, i.e. the temporal or
earthly plane) who succeeds in living an honest, loving and dharmic life a jivanmukta
(living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is best expressed in the Upanishadic
dictum, Tat Twam Asi (Thou Art That), and the ultimate aspiration as
follows:
- Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam
gamaya
- "Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death
to immortality."
For more details, see Mantra.
Hindu scriptures
Hindu scripture is overwhelmingly
written in Sanskrit. Indeed, much of the
morphology and linguistic
philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study
of the Vedas and
relevant Hindu texts. Hindu texts are typically seen to revolve around many
levels of reading, namely gross/physical, subtle and supramental. This allows
for many levels of understanding as well, implying that the truth of the texts
can only be realized with the spiritual advancement of the reader. It is divided
into two categories:Shruti- that which is heard
(i.e. revelation) and Smriti- that which is
remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation).
For a more thorough look at the important texts of Hinduism, see Hindu scripture.
Shruti
The Vedas are
considered scripture by all Hindus. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus
may never read the Vedas, the reverence for the more
abstract notion of eternal knowledge (Veda means knowledge) is etched
deep into the hearts of all those who follow Veda Dharma. Classed with the Vedas (which
specifically refer to the Rig/Rg, Yajur, Sama and Atharva
Vedas) are their famous commentaries, the Upanishads. While the early
Vedas lay the foundation for subsequent Hindu ritual, cosmology and developing
philosophy, the Upanishads built the edifice
of mystic insight and abhorrence for ritual practiced at the expense of
spiritual insight. Forming the core of the Vedanta (End of Vedas),
they streamline the excessive litany of praise to Vedic gods and capture the essence
of the Rig Vedic dictum "Truth Is One." They set Hindu philosophy apart with its
embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each
man's soul, an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said
that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the
Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was
molded around the Upanishads.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita occupies a
special position in the hearts of most Hindus as a keystone yoga
upanishad whose eternal words perhaps are the most representative of all
Hindu thought, each shloka 'directly' from the mouth of the Lord Krishna. While
technically it is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly
unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive
single Hindu text, read by millions of bhaktas (devotees) and
yogis on a largely daily basis throughout the Sanatana Dharmic
world. See Bhagavad Gita to explore
this text.
Smriti
The post-Vedic Hindu scriptures form the latter category, the most notable of
which are the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana, major epics considered
scripture by most followers of Sanatana Dharma, their stories arguably familiar
to the vast majority of Hindus living in the Indian subcontinent,
if not abroad. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Devi
Mahatmya, an ode to Devi, the Divine Mother, and the Yoga
Sutras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patanjali. There are also a
number of revered Hindu Tantras and Sutras that command the
respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvana
Tantra, Tirumantiram
and Shiva
Sutras. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Agamas which are
texts dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.
References
- Rigveda. Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia (http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241)
- "Hinduism"
on Microsoft Encarta Online (http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html)
See also
Related articles, lists and concepts
Important Hindu Scripture
Hindu terminology
External links
Links to Themes in Hinduism
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